What is the Fallacy of Composition

The Fallacy of Composition involves taking attributes of part of an object or class and applying them to the entire object or class. It is similar to the Fallacy of Division but works in reverse. The argument being made is that because every part has some characteristic, then the whole must necessarily also have that characteristic. This is a fallacy because not everything that is true about every part of an object is necessarily true of the whole, much less about the entire class that the object is part of. This is the general form that the Fallacy of Composition takes: 1. All parts (or members) of X have the property P. Thus, X itself has the property P. Explanation and Discussion of the Fallacy of Composition Here are some obvious examples of the Fallacy of Composition: 2. Because the atoms of a penny are not visible to the naked eye, then the penny itself must also not be visible to the naked eye.3. Because all of the components of this car are light and easy to carry, then the car itself must also be light and easy to carry. It is not the case that what is true of the parts cant also be true of the whole. It is possible to make arguments similar to the above which are not fallacious and which have conclusions which follow validly from the premises. Here are some examples: 4. Because the atoms of a penny have mass, then the penny itself must have mass.5. Because all of the components of this car are entirely white, then the car itself must also be entirely white. So why do these arguments work - what is the difference between them and the previous two? Because the Fallacy of Composition is an informal fallacy, you have to look at the content rather than the structure of the argument. When you examine the content, you will find something special about the characteristics being applied. A characteristic can be transferred from the parts to the whole when the existence of that characteristic in the parts is what will cause it to be true of the whole. In #4, the penny itself has mass because the constituent atoms have mass. In #5 the car itself is entirely white because the parts are entirely white. This is an unstated premise in the argument and depends upon our prior knowledge about the world. We know, for example, that while car parts might be lightweight, getting a whole lot together will likely create something that weighs a lot - and weighs too much to carry easily. A car cannot be made light and easy to carry just by having parts which are, individually, themselves light and easy to carry. Similarly, a penny cannot be made invisible just because its atoms are not visible to us. When someone offers an argument like the above, and you are skeptical that it is valid, you need to look very closely at the content of both the premises and the conclusion. You may need to ask that the person demonstrates the necessary connection between an attribute being true of the parts and it also ​being true of the whole. Here are some examples that are a little less obvious than the first two above, but which are just as fallacious: 6. Because each member of this baseball team is the best in the league for their position, then the team itself must also be the best in the league.7. Because cars create less pollution than buses, cars must be less of a pollution problem than buses.8. With a laissez-faire capitalist economic system, each member of society must act in a way that will maximize his or her own economic interests. Thus, society as a whole will achieve the maximum economic advantages. These examples help demonstrate the distinction between formal and informal fallacies. The error isnt recognizable simply by looking at the structure of the arguments being made. Instead, you have to look at the content of the claims. When you do that, you can see that the premises are insufficient to demonstrate the truth of the conclusions. One important thing to note is that the Fallacy of Composition is similar to but distinct from the fallacy of Hasty Generalization. This latter fallacy involves assuming that something is true of an entire class due to an atypical or small sample size. This is different from making such an assumption based on an attribute which is indeed shared by all parts or members. Religion and the Fallacy of Composition Atheists debating science and religion will frequently encounter variations on this fallacy: 9. Because everything in the universe is caused, then the universe itself must also be caused.10. ...it makes more sense that there is an eternal God who always existed than to suppose the universe itself has always existed, because nothing in the universe is eternal. Since no part of it lasts forever, then it is only reasonable that all its parts put together were not there forever either. Even famous philosophers have committed the Fallacy of Composition. Here is an example from Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics: 11. Is he [man] born without a function? Or as eye, hand, foot, and in general each of the parts evidently has a function, may one lay it down that man similarly has a function apart from all these? Here it is argued that, just because the parts (organs) of a person have a higher function, that, therefore, the whole (a person) also has some higher function. But people and their organs are not analogous like that. For example, part of what defines an animals organ is the function it serves - must the whole organism also be defined that way as well? Even if we assume for a moment that it is true that humans do have some higher function, it is not at all clear that functionality is the same as the functionality of their individual organs. Because of this, the term function would be used in multiple ways in the same argument, resulting in the Fallacy of Equivocation.

The Origins and Patterns of Development for the New World...

Contact between the Old World and the New World forever changed the course of history. This confluence began a number of very impactful trends, many of which had intercontinental effects. As the two worlds collided European countries fought for control of newfound areas in the New World. Additionally, this time period saw the beginning of the exchange of commodities across both sides of the Atlantic. These two things, imperial competition and transatlantic trade, influenced the origins and patterns of development of North American societies in the colonial period. Trade affected the birth and development of the British colonies in America. In the case of the first colony, Virginia, trade was at the heart of its survival. When Virginia was†¦show more content†¦Virginia is a great example of how even at its very beginnings, trade was what allowed the colonies in America to begin and thrive. In many cases though, trade has had negative effects, because very often trade and comp etition are closely connected. Such was the case during the mid-seventeenth century in America. Around this time, a conflict between the French and the English arose over beaver furs, dramatically affecting the native Indian populations of eastern North America. Indians in North America would trade Europeans beaver furs, which the Europeans wanted because beaver furs were both warm and waterproof. The best land for beaver furs was between the land of the French-allied Algonquin and the English-allied Iroquois. Because arming troops and sending them to the New World would be very expensive, the French and the English fought over these desirable beaver furs vicariously, that is, through the Indians living in North America. Thus to gain control of the beaver furs, the French and the English pitted the Indian tribes of the region against each other. During these aptly named Beaver Wars, the English armed the Iroquois in order to give them an advantage, and also sold them alcohol. In doi ng so, they considerably affected Indian society. A major component of the change in Indian society came as a result of the guns given to the Indians. These guns led to a vicious cycle: prior to this point very few peopleShow MoreRelatedThe Human Nature Of Human Beings1119 Words   |  5 Pagesconnection to the animal world with which they share most of their vital functions. They also have realized that they are unique and emerging over the rest of the natural world. Human beings are the subject of a specific phenomenology which belongs to them only, and whose origin raises critical questions when considered in the context of their habitat, of the Earth, and in the larger sense of things; the universe. 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ComLab Inventory free essay sample

2. 1 Introduction This chapter will review all related work and technology used in developing the â€Å"Computer Laboratory Inventory System† This chapter will review on the technologies that relate to the needed research and the current or related projects that have been studied. 2. 2 Definition of Terms/Concepts 2. 2. 1 Barcode Inventory System The term â€Å"barcode inventory system† is generic and encompasses avariety of different applications and industries. The term is commonly used in warehousing, logistics, and distribution; it can also be used in retail point-of-sale, manufacturing, and various service sector implementations. In each case, at its core, a â€Å"barcode inventory system† includes ameasurable list of items or quantities and utilizes barcode technology in some fashion. Barcode technology is a means of interfacing humans to data processing equipment; therefore, barcode technology cannot be utilized independent of data processing equipment. Commonly, the data processing equipmentstores the results of a â€Å"barcode inventory system† in electronic form. 2. 2. 2 Automatic Data Gathering This term refer to the concept of data collection that run on script that will be developed. It is important that the system will automatic, by detection of the computer hardware and software component and then store the data into the database at the same time. The script will be based on JavaScript because it supports the Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) and Windows Script Host (WSH). Both two components are required to enable the detection of the computer hardware and software function in this system. 2. 2. 3 Windows Script Host (WSH) The Microsoft Windows Script Host (originally called Windows ScriptingHost) is distributed and installed by default on Windows 98 and laterversions of Microsoft Windows. It is also installed if Internet Explorer 5 (ora later version) is installed. It provides scripting capabilities comparable to batch files, but with a greater range of supported features. Beginning with Windows 2000, the Windows Script Host became available for use with user login scripts. It is language-independent in the sense that it can make use of different Active Scripting language engines. By default it interprets and runs plaintext JScript (. JS and . JSE files) and VBScript (. VBS and . VBE files). Users can install different scripting engines to enable them to script in other languages, for instance Perl. The language independent filename extension WSF can also be used. The advantage of the Windows Script File (. WSF) is that it allows the user to use a combination of scripting languages within a single file. The researcher has taken the advantage of the scripting ability by developing a JavaScript file to be used as Automatic Data Gathering engine for Computer Inventory System. 2. 3 Different Types of Inventory System There are a number of different inventory systems starting with the most ancient system to the most advanced system. 2. 3. 1 Physical Counts (Periodic System) The most basic method of inventory tracking is physical counts. A lot of firms relied on physical count to try and figure approximately where they were at. 2. 3. 2 Two-Bin System The two-bin system is only slightly more sophisticated than the physical count system. Using the marvels of modern technology, this system uses two bins of materials. When one bin is empty, its time to re-order. 2. 3. 3 Perpetual Tracking This method of counting is demand driven. Instead of counting how many items are in inventory, we count how many leave inventory. The demand can be tracked by batches of inventory usage, such as demand that is entered once a week or they can enter in real time which provides the ability to continuously monitor inventory levels. If we are already in the practice of counting demand, this is a great way to track inventory because it involves little additional effort. It was ideal because there is little variability in the products that are demanded. For a supermarket, this can be more difficult because of the variety of products sold. Chapter III System Analysis and Design System analysis is the process of understanding and specifying in detail what the information system should do. This involves all the data gathered during the previous interviews with the subject personnel as needed by the researcher. This chapter covers on the presentation, requirements and specification of the proposed system. This also shows if the proposed system is feasible. System Feasibility Feasibility study is a systematic analysis and performed in advance to the project in order to provide some information about the project whether it should be undertaken or not. It involves the analysis of the system to determine whether it is feasible to develop the particular system. The feasibility on this proposed system was foreseen to be feasible to the Institution through the following factors: Operational This system will be operational feasible considering the fact that it will fasten the processing of the computer laboratory inventory system of Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Colleges. The proposed system will have a user friendly environment and the flow of the system can be easily comprehended by the user. Technical The technicality of the proposed computer laboratory inventory system is considered feasible because it was developed to help the staff in managing computer assets,especially when they are going to trace the computers and peripheral and domass upgrade. The purpose of the system is to help the staffs manage the computers inventory more effective and easy way. Using this Computer Laboratory Inventory System, staffs can get information about all computers, monitors and other peripherals that currently exist in the faculty. They also can trace where all the computers are located in the faculty whether in the computer labs, classes, offices, in the lecturer’s room or anywhere in the faculty. In order for the system to perform better, Computers should be placed in a well-ventilated area and should be well protected to avoid electrical problems. Schedule The Researchers was given an enough time frame to comply the proposed system for the Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Colleges – Computer Laboratory Inventory System. They were given one whole semester to finish the entire system and the study. This was very sufficient in conducting his study, performing interviews, designing and creating the proposed system. In designing and creating the system, the researchers was also allowed to use the unit in the computer laboratory of the school even extends his working hours during free time only. Economic Feasibility The proposed system is economically feasible to the Institution for the reason that the school will benefit and save money in purchasing the system. System Requirement Specification The system requirement of the proposed system is needed to run efficiently. If the hardware and the software do not meet the required specification, our system will probably encounter problems. The process of the computer may run slow which may cause delay. Hardware Specification Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system which is required in the study. Below are the lists of the minimum requirements of hardware components of the computer for the proposed system. Colored monitor Mouse Standard Keyboard System Unit (at least Pentium 3) AVR (Auto-Voltage Regulator) Hard Disk (at least 80 gigabytes) Software Specification Software refers to the needed and required software applications in order for the proposed study to run and be used. Operating System-Microsoft Windows XP Service Pack 2 or Higher Microsoft Office 2003 Microsoft Visual Basic 6. 0 People The people involved in the proposed system are the direct users. They are categorized as primary users and secondary users. To manage the system the user should be computer literate and able to use and operate a computer so that they will have no difficulties of absorbing the instructions the researcher will have to give during the training period. This is essential so that they will not encounter problems while using the system. These users will also undergo several seminars or training to familiarize the system. This is highly recommended so that they could easily handle the system to avoid delay and errors. System Requirement Checklist During the requirements modeling, the researcher must have to identify and describe all system requirements. The System Requirements Checklist presents the inputs, process, outputs, performance and controls. Input – the data’s that are inputted and stored in the database considered as raw material that are being processed to create the necessary information. Process – are the transactions of an establishment being done on the data in thesystem. Output – the report and visual outcome of the processed data. Performance – trapping of errors and outcome of the processing. Controls – the shortcut keys that are used to manipulate the screen. Future Growth, Cost and Benefits This will discuss the benefits of the proposed system. The implementation of the new system is firmly believed and assured to produce tangible benefits though it has also intangible benefits to the company. Tangible Benefits The proposed system provides assurance to the company that Proposed System will lessen works loads and will provide a better service to the respondents. Aside from that, it can easily generate reports and it will improve the performance of the firm in terms of service. Intangible Benefits Immediate maintenance if there are some necessary technical problems occurs in the System. Scalability This is to test if the new systems will be capable of storing a large capacity of data that can hold information based on the specified needed requirements specifically on the hard disk. In the future growth, the system will reach its discarded period and will not be capable of storing information so the system is recommended to upgrade its program to sustain its operation. The researcher assures that the given hardware and software requirements are reliable and can sustain a large number of information. Enterprise Modeling This presentation contains the sequence in the Computer Laboratory Inventory System of Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Colleges. For the system to be efficient, the researcher develops graphical presentations about the proposed system. The system flowchart indicates the Proposed Computer Laboratory Inventory system that it could minimize errors on the whole operation compared to the existing system. The enterprise model shows how the entities are related to each other and it also widens our understanding on how the researcher designed the program to perform certain transactions. System Flow Chart, or data flow, is used to describe the flow of data through a complete data-processing system. Different graphic symbols represent the clerical operations involved and the different input, storage, and output information required. Although the flow chart may indicate the specific program used, no details are given of how the programs process the data. Context Diagram The above diagram shows the whole process done in the proposed Computer Laboratory Inventory system. This is to identify all the major input and output of the system. Data Flow Diagram of the Proposed Computer Laboratory Inventory System A Data Flow Diagram is a graphical representation of the â€Å"flow† of data through an information system. User User Account 1. 0 Category Info Item Info. Transaction details Category 3. 0 Reports Transaction Summary Report Inventory Report Table 1 File Maintenance Table 1. 1 User Information Input Add new user , Add new password, Process Add, Update, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display User Account Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 1. 2 Unit Information Input Unit Process Add, Edit, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display Unit Record Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 1. 3 Supplier’s Information Input Company name, Company Address, Contact Person, Contact No. Process Add, Update, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display Supplier Account Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 1. 4 Office Information Input Office Name, Office Address, Bldg. No. Process Add, Update, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display Office Account Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 1. 5 Officer Information Input Officer Name, Officer ID No. , Officer Department Process Add, Update, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display Officer Account Performance No Errors, user- friendly Control Table 1. 6 Category Information Input Category Name Process Add, Update, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display Category Record Performance No Errors, user- friendly Control Table 1. 7 Brand Information Input Brand Name Process Add, Update, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display Brand Record Performance No Errors, user- friendly Control Table 2 Transaction Table 2. 1 New Items Input Category, Unit, Brand, Description, Price, Date of Purchase, Supplier, Office, Officer, Process Add, Update, Save, Delete, Close, Refresh Output Display New Item Information Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 2. 2 Dispose Items Input Unit to Be Dispose, Reason of Disposal Process Search, Dispose, Refresh Output Display Dispose Item Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 2. 3 Repose Items Input Dispose ID, Reason of Repose Process Search, Repose, Refresh Output Display Repose Item Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 2. 4 Transfer Items Input Category, Brand, Transfer Office, Transfer Address, Process Search, Transfer, Refresh Output Display Transfer Item Information Performance No Errors, user friendly Control Table 3 Data Report Input None Process Print and Review Output List of All Information for One New Item and All Transaction